Between the center and periphery: Commodification, formalisation, and infrastructuralisation of grassroots innovation.

The question of whether China can become a creative nation has been a topic of much debate in academic circles. The Chinese government has expressed its belief that China can develop a unique form of creativity to move the country from the periphery to the center of the global creative ecosystem. This perspective has led to a series of state-led trials and experiments, including the adoption of cultural and creative industries, creative clusters and cities, and the recent maker movement. This paper utilizes the center-periphery theory to analyze the emergence, development, and evolution of China's maker movement, aiming to revisit the creativity issues in contemporary China. Based on three years of ethnographic research, the paper unpacks the maker movement at three interrelated levels: individual, organizational, and urban. Empirical data indicates that the transformation of China's maker movement is characterized by commodification, formalization, and infrastructuralization processes. The tension between growth and development, and stability and control has turned the once grassroots maker movement into a contested creative hybrid. This paper challenges the conventional view that China is resistant to change and incapable of creativity due to institutional and ideological influences. It demonstrates how an alternative mode of creativity can emerge outside global creative centers and proposes a new perspective on China's potential to become a creative nation.

A Market of Lived Experience-User Involvement and the Commodification of Personal Experiences of Mental Illness.

Working actively to engage service users in participatory practices is both a policy expectation and a moral imperative for mental health social workers in contemporary Western mental health care. Recent research suggests that such practices of service user involvement are becoming increasingly individualised and driven by market logic. Based on an ethnographic study within a Swedish public psychiatric organisation, this article applies the concept of commodification to examine this trend. By showing how the practice of user involvement takes the form of a market where personal narratives and experiences of mental health problems are bought and sold as commodities, the analysis illuminates how market logic permeates the everyday practice of user involvement. One consequence of this commodification is that user organisations, as well as individual service users, are restricted in their role as independent actors pursuing their own agenda, and instead increasingly act on behalf of the public and as providers of personal experiences. While it is vital that service user perspectives are heard and recognised within mental health services, mental health social workers need to be aware of the risks of commodifying lived experience. When attention is directed to individual experiences and narratives, there is a risk that opportunities to advocate on behalf of the user collective as a whole and speak from a more principled and socio-political standpoint are lost. In addition, the commodification of personal experience tends to rationalise and privilege user narratives that conform to the dominant institutional logic of the mental health organisation, while excluding more uncomfortable and challenging voices, thereby undermining the ability of service users to raise critical issues that do not align with the interests of the mental health organisation.

Against commercial-assisted suicide.

The idea of commercial-assisted suicide lives a marginal existence in the bioethical literature, despite its significant presence in popular culture. The practice of commercial-assisted suicide (CAS) is defined as suicide assistance performed for a financial reward through a contractual agreement between a customer and a service-provider, who does not necessarily need to be a medical professional. While CAS does indeed offer some potential solutions regarding the moral controversies surrounding physician-assisted suicide (PAS), I defend the idea that adopting it as policy ultimately proves morally indefensible and practically inefficient. This is due to the fact that the commodification of a given good necessarily implies the creation of a market of said good; as such, what I propose in this paper is a moral and practical evaluation of a market of CAS. In order to do so, I first examine the arguments in favor of CAS as put forward by Roland Kipke, who argues that any liberal defense of PAS necessarily implies a defense of CAS. In the first section, I argue against this idea using the liberal values of autonomy and equality of opportunity. In the second section of the paper, I argue that a market of CAS would be gravely dysfunctional due to one particular characteristic of death, namely, that is not compensable ex post. I conclude by arguing that while the practice of CAS may not prove morally problematic, the inevitable market that it will create should it be legalized most certainly will.

The Commodification of Health Services: an Alternative for the Marginalized Population of Mexico City.

The Doctor's Office Adjacent to Pharmacies (DAP) model has grown exponentially in Mexico. Its proliferation is due to two factors. The first is the high cost of medical consultations in private hospitals, and the second is that public health services are insufficient. To gauge the importance this model has acquired, it is necessary to analyze the pattern of distribution and operation of this type of doctors' offices and determine whether they are responding to the unmet demand of a population that is socio-territorially marginalized from health infrastructure. A database was created with updated, geo-referenced information on the precise location of DAP throughout Mexico City and its metropolitan area. Information was obtained on the location, condition and type of franchise, and the infrastructure of each establishment. The analysis found that the distribution pattern of DAP satisfies an unmet need in areas with the highest demand for health services. This situation occurs particularly in areas inhabited by the most marginalized population.

New Zealand's Approaches to Regulating the Commodification of the Female Body : A Comparative Analysis Reveals Ethical Inconsistencies.

In 2003 and 2004, Aotearoa New Zealand enacted two key laws that regulate two very different ways in which the female body may be commodified. The Prostitution Reform Act 2003 (PRA) decriminalized prostitution, removing legal barriers to the buying and selling of commercial sexual services. The Human Assisted Reproductive Technology Act 2004 (HART Act), on the other hand, put a prohibition on commercial surrogacy agreements. This paper undertakes a comparative analysis of the ethical arguments underlying New Zealand's legislative solutions to prostitution and commercial surrogacy. While the regulation of prostitution is approached with a Marxist feminist lens with the aim to ensure the health and safety of sex workers, commercial surrogacy is prohibited outright for concerns of negative impacts on present and future persons. I ground the principles of each Act in their ethical foundations and compare these two against one another. I conclude that New Zealand's legislative approach to regulating the commodification of the female body is ethically inconsistent.

Telerradiología: guía de buenas prácticas / Teleradiology: good practice guide

La telerradiología es la trasmisión electrónica de imágenes radiológicas de una localización a otra con el propósito principal de interpretar o consultar un diagnóstico y debe estar sujeta a códigos de conducta consensuados por sociedades profesionales. Se analiza el contenido de 14 guías de buenas prácticas de telerradiología. Sus principios rectores son: el mejor interés y beneficio del paciente, estándares de calidad y seguridad homologables al servicio de radiología local, y utilización como complemento y apoyo del mismo. Como obligaciones legales: garantizar los derechos aplicando el principio de país de origen del paciente, establecer requisitos en telerradiología internacional y seguro de responsabilidad civil. Con respecto al proceso radiológico: integración con el proceso del servicio local, garantizar la calidad de imágenes e informes, el acceso a los estudios e informes previos y cumplir los principios de radioprotección. En relación con los requisitos profesionales: cumplir con los registros, licencias y cualificaciones exigidas, formación y capacitación del radiólogo y técnico, prevención de prácticas fraudulentas, respeto a las normas laborales y remuneración del radiólogo. La subcontratación debe estar justificada, gestionando el riesgo de comoditización. Cumplimiento de estándares técnicos del sistema (AU)

Teleradiology is the electronic transmission of radiological images from one location to another with the main purpose of interpreting or consulting a diagnosis and must be subject to codes of conduct agreed upon by professional societies. The content of fourteen teleradiology best practice guidelines is analyzed. Their guiding principles are: the best interest and benefit of the patient, quality and safety standards homologous to the local radiology service, and use as a complement and support of the same. As legal obligations: guaranteeing rights by applying the principle of the patient's country of origin, establishing requirements in international teleradiology and civil liability insurance. Regarding the radiological process: integration with the local service process, guaranteeing the quality of images and reports, access to previous studies and reports and complying with the principles of radioprotection. Regarding professional requirements: compliance with the required registrations, licenses and qualifications, training and qualification of the radiologist and technician, prevention of fraudulent practices, respect for labor standards and remuneration of the radiologist. Subcontracting must be justified, managing the risk of commoditization. Compliance with the system's technical standards (AU)

Addressing Risks Derived From the Commodification of Substances of Human Origin: A European Proposal Applicable Worldwide.

In view of the public consultation recently launched by the World Health Organization on Regulatory Convergence of Cell and Gene Therapy Products and the Proposal for a Regulation on substances of human origin (SoHO) repealing the European Union Directives on Blood and on Tissues and Cells, an opportunity arises to define an ethical and transparent framework of collaboration between industry and authorities responsible for SoHO-derived products, comprising medicines, medical devices, transfusion, and transplantation. The commodification of SoHO-derived medicinal products and medical devices entails important risks to the sustainability of healthcare systems and threatens the equitable access of patients to innovative therapies. It may also jeopardize the principle of altruistic donation of SoHO that is required for the treatment and survival of thousands of patients every year. This article puts forward several proposals aimed at reconciling the ethical principles of voluntary and unpaid SoHO donation and the noncommercialization of the human body with obtaining a profit that allows business activities, while ensuring high quality, safety, and efficacy standards of tissues and cells for clinical use.

Olhares e produções de saberes: narrativas da psicologia acerca das relações raciais / Gaze and knowledge production: psychology narratives about racial relations / Mirada y producción de saber: narrativas de la psicología sobre las relaciones raciales

Este artigo realiza um percurso histórico das narrativas teóricas construídas pelas elites intelectuais brancas brasileiras sobre as relações raciais no campo psicológico, bem como os efeitos desse processo no desenvolvimento da psicologia enquanto ciência e profissão. Como a maioria de profissionais da área é branca em um país cuja maioria da população é negra, torna-se cada vez mais urgente e necessário revisitar tanto as bases da psicologia acerca das relações raciais quanto o modo como essas relações se dão no cotidiano, com vistas a construir caminhos para pensar teoria e prática comprometidas com a igualdade racial. Nesse sentido, tecem-se considerações sobre as narrativas teóricas acerca das relações raciais no campo científico brasileiro, destacando o lugar da psicologia nesse percurso. Em seguida, discutem-se as relações entre as perspectivas da realidade social e das produções de saberes nesse campo. Ainda mais especificamente no campo da psicologia, evidenciam-se os paradigmas que orientaram os estudos sobre as relações raciais na área e, por fim, aponta-se um caminho possível para a construção de uma ciência psicológica compromissada com a igualdade racial.(AU)

This paper presents a historical overview of the theoretical narratives constructed by white Brazilian intellectual elites about race relations within psychology and its the effects on the development of Psychology as a science and a profession. As psychology professionals are white, whereas the majority of the population is black, it is increasingly urgent and necessary to revisit the foundations of psychology on everyday life racial relations, towards a theory and practice committed to racial equality. The text presents considerations on the theoretical narratives about race relations in the Brazilian scientific field, highlighting the role played by psychology. It then discusses the relations between social reality and knowledge production in this field. Regarding psychology specifically, it highlights the paradigms that guided studies on race relations in the field and proposes a possible way to develop a psychological science committed to racial equality.(AU)

Este trabajo realiza un recorrido histórico sobre las narrativas teóricas construidas por las élites intelectuales brasileñas blancas sobre las relaciones raciales en el campo de la Psicología, y los efectos de este proceso en el desarrollo de la psicología como ciencia y profesión. Como la mayoría de los profesionales en el área son blancos en un país donde la mayoría de la población es negra, es cada vez más urgente y necesario revisar los fundamentos de la psicología sobre las relaciones raciales, y cómo son estas relaciones en la vida cotidiana, para que podamos construir teoría y práctica comprometidas con la igualdad racial. Primero, se reflexionará sobre las narrativas teóricas de las relaciones raciales en este campo científico brasileño, destacando el lugar de la psicología en este camino. Luego, se discutirán las relaciones entre las perspectivas sobre la realidad social y la producción de conocimiento en este campo. Aún más específicamente en el campo de la psicología, se resaltarán los paradigmas que guiaron los estudios sobre las relaciones raciales en el área y, finalmente, se señalará un posible camino en la construcción de una ciencia psicológica comprometida con la igualdad racial.(AU)

Mercantilização do ensino superior: uma análise de cursos de Serviço Social a distância / Mercantilization of higher education: an analysis of online social service courses

O artigo analisa as páginas dos sites de sete instituições brasileiras que oferecem cursos de Serviço Social a distância e que são acessíveis à população de Viçosa, Minas Gerais, Brasil. Os dados revelam que as principais estratégias de promoção dos cursos centram-se em aspectos econômicos como valor da mensalidade, oportunidades de bolsas de estudo e oferecimento de descontos. O pouco espaço para apresentação do currículo e da formação profissional sinaliza um distanciamento do projeto ético-político do Serviço Social brasileiro, comprometido com uma educação laica, gratuita, crítica e de qualidade

The paper aims at examining the pages of the websites of seven Brazilian institutions that offer online Social Work courses, which are available to the population of Viçosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil. The data show that the main strategies for promoting the courses focus on economic aspects such as tuition fees, discounts and scholarship opportunities. The little space for the presentation of the curriculum and professional training signals a distance from the ethical-political project of the Brazilian Social Service, committed to a secular, free, critical and quality education

Ethics of Buying DNA.

DNA databases have significant commercial value. Direct-to-consumer genetic testing companies have built databanks using samples and information voluntarily provided by customers. As the price of genetic analysis falls, there is growing interest in building such databases by paying individuals for their DNA and personal data. This paper maps the ethical issues associated with private companies paying for DNA. We outline the benefits of building better genomic databases and describe possible concerns about crowding out, undue inducement, exploitation, and commodification. While certain objections deserve more empirical and philosophical investigation, we argue that none currently provide decisive reasons against using financial incentives to secure DNA samples.

O papel do Fies e do Prouni na privatização, mercantilização e financeirização da educação superior brasileira / El papel de Fies y Prouni en la privatización, marketing y financialización de la educación superior brasileñalos / The role of Fies and Prouni in the privatization, commodification and financialization of brazilian higher education

O FIES e o PROUNI são programas da política nacional de educação que têm como foco a expansão das vagas e o acesso ao ensino superior. Eles são direcionados ao setor privado e possibilitam o ingresso de estudantes em situação econômica mais vulneráveis. A despeito de se apresentarem como comprometidos com as alternativas de inclusão social, esses Programas vêm sendo determinantes para as relações de privatização, de mercantilização e de financeirização do ensino superior. Dada essa constatação, o artigo faz uma abordagem crítica dessas relações, através de uma pesquisa documental e bibliográfica. Dentre os resultados constam evidenciadas a preocupação com a regulamentação do setor, com a priorização da educação pela via privada, as implicações dos Programas para as transformações estruturais nas instituições públicas e para a qualidade do ensino superior.(AU)

FIES y PROUNI son programas de política educativa nacional que se enfocan en ampliar las vacantes y el acceso a la educación superior. Están dirigidos al sector privado y permiten la entrada de estudiantes en situaciones económicas más vulnerables. A pesar de presentarse como comprometidos con alternativas de inclusión social, estos programas han sido determinantes para las relaciones de privatización, mercantilización y financiarización de la educación superior. Ante este hallazgo, el artículo realiza una aproximación crítica a estas relaciones, a través de una investigación documental y bibliográfica. Entre los resultados se evidencia la preocupación con la regulación del sector, con la priorización de la educación por la vía privada, las implicaciones de los Programas para las transformaciones estructurales en las instituciones públicas y para la calidad de la educación superior.(AU)

FIES and PROUNI are national education policy programs that focus on expanding vacancies and access to higher education. They are aimed at the private sector and allow the entry of students in more vulnerable economic situations. Despite presenting themselves as committed to alternatives for social inclusion, these programs have been decisive for the relations of privatization, commodification and financialization of higher education. Given this finding, the article makes a critical approach to these relationships, through documental and bibliographic research. Among the results are evident the concern with the regulation of the sector, with the prioritization of education through the private route, the implications of the Programs for the structural transformations in public institutions and for the quality of higher education.(AU)

Parentalidades híbridas: circulación, apropiación y mercantilización de biomaterias primas / Hybrid parenthood: circulation, appropriation, and commercialization of bio raw materials

Resumen Las tecnologías de fertilización in vitro involucran una articulación tensa y contradictoria de sentidos hegemónicos establecidos en sistemas de creencias y normas respecto de la reproducción, la herencia genética, el parentesco, las identidades, las sexualidades, la naturaleza, lo sagrado, los cuerpos y el control y producción de la vida. A partir de experiencias etnográficas provenientes de entrevistas en profundidad realizadas entre los años 2007 y 2010 y entre 2017 y 2021 a trabajadoras en agencias de gestación por sustitución en Estados Unidos, profesionales vinculadas con los procedimientos en clínicas de fertilidad en Argentina y usuarios/as que acudieron a estas prácticas, este trabajo analiza las diferentes dimensiones y componentes que intervienen en los procedimientos de fertilización asistida: cuando las prácticas movilizan actores "aliados" al proyecto de paternidad y maternidad, las relaciones de poder y subalternidad resultan invisibilizadas en las transacciones. De forma simultánea, estas resultan imprescindibles para la producción material de las "parentalidades híbridas" en las que contextos particulares brindan interpretaciones y sensibilidades "situadas" en la trayectoria histórico-política argentina.

Abstract Biomedicine has built its object of study and intervention from a long and continuous process of desacralization, fragmentation, and progressive dissolution of the body as a monolithic entity in material and symbolic terms. Technological interventions provided possibilities for bodies, identities, and lives to be constructed, recombined, and designed by mobilizing molecular entities, which can be perceived as biofragments, with intervention practices. Consequently, in vitro fertilization technologies imply a tense and contradictory articulation of hegemonic meanings based on belief systems and norms about reproduction, genetic inheritance, kinship, identities, sexualities, nature, sanctity, bodies, and control and production of life. From ethnographic experiences in the area of assisted fertilization, this article analyzes the different dimensions and components that intervene in these procedures: when practices mobilize actors "allied" to the paternity and maternity project, the power and subalternity relations are made invisible in transactions. At the same time, these are essential for the material production of "hybrid parenthoods" in which particular contexts provide interpretations and sensibilities "situated" in the Argentine historical-political trajectory.

A lógica de mercado no cotidiano das instituições de ensino superior: um estudo de cursos de graduação em enfermagem / The market logic in the daily life of higher education institutions: a study of undergraduate nursing courses

Introdução - Destaca o cenário de formação no ensino superior em enfermagem brasileiro sob o contexto das influências de mercado nos moldes do capitalismo contemporâneo. Objetivo - Compreender e caracterizar a prática social de alunos e professores de cursos de graduação em enfermagem em relação à lógica mercadológica que vigora das instituições de ensino superior. Métodos - Foram entrevistados nove discentes e oito docentes dos cursos de graduação em enfermagem de duas instituições públicas de ensino superior, localizadas no Estado de São Paulo. O cotidiano das instituições foi investigado por meio de observação participante nos ambientes acadêmicos frequentados pelos sujeitos em pesquisa. Resultados - O conteúdo das entrevistas foi organizado em seis categorias de análise: Motivação para o ingresso; Formação acadêmica; Relação entre ensino e mercado; Relações sociais; Sensações; Atitudes. Contatou-se que a forma como a dinâmica social se estabelece dos campos em estudo caracteriza a existência de uma limitação do reconhecimento dos efeitos da mercantilização da formação acadêmica. A maior parte de atitudes empreendidas pelos sujeitos se direcionam no sentido de adaptação à lógica mercadológica que impera na universidade. As ações movidas no sentido contrário a essa consolidação foram esparsas, individualizadas e frágeis. Conclusões - O panorama que se institui no ensino superior brasileiro e na formação acadêmica em enfermagem é pouco reconhecido e contestado pelos sujeitos em estudo. A reduzida manifestação de ações direcionadas para a transformação desse cenário possibilita o destaque de práticas orientadas à manutenção do modo de produção capitalista no ensino superior. As perspectivas de transformação pressupõem organização coletiva e o compartilhamento de conteúdos contra hegemônicos capazes de despertar consciências para a realidade social vigente.

Introduction - This study Highlights the Brazilian nursing higher education under the context of the marker influences shaped by the contemporary capitalism. Objective - To understand and characterize the social practice of students and professors of undergraduate nursing courses in relation to the marketing logic that prevails in higher education institutions. Method - Nine nursing undergraduate students and eight professors from public higher education, located in the state of São Paulo, were interviewed. The daily life of these institutions was investigated through participant observation in the academic environments frequented by the target subjects. Results - The content of the interviews was organized under six analysis categories: Motivation for career choice; Academic education; Relationship between teaching and Market; Social Relationships; Sensations; Attitudes. It was observed that the way social dynamics of the fields under study are established characterizes the existence of a limited awareness of the effects of the commodification of academic education. The majority of the subjects' attitudes are driven towards to the marketing logic that prevails in the university. The actions taken in the opposite sense to these consolidations were sparse, of individual nature and fragile. Conclusions - the scenario that is established on the Brazilian higher education and nursing academic education has limited awareness by the target subjects and are rarely contested by them. The reduced manifestation of actions aimed at transforming this scenario makes it possible to highlight practices aimed at maintaining the capitalist mode of production in higher education. The perspectives of transformation presuppose collective organization and the sharing of counter-hegemonic contents capable of awakening consciences to the current social reality.

Necropolítica e objetivação da vida: aniquilação e mercantilização do criminoso / Necropolítica y objetivación de la vida: aniquilación y mercantilización del criminal / Necropolitics and objectification of life: annihilation to mercantilization of the criminal

Este artigo aborda a questão do enfrentamento do comércio de drogas ilícitas no Brasil e a criminalização da pobreza. O objetivo é apontar a concomitância de duas práticas dirigidas àqueles considerados potencialmente perigosos (negros e pobres). Estas práticas seriam o uso explícito da violência e do extermínio no gerenciamento do direito de vida e de morte (Necropolítica e Capitalismo Gore), bem como a gestão da criminalidade que se apoia em discursos de resgate e prevenção (empreendedorismo e mercantilização da figura do "traficante"). Dessa forma, realizamos a análise de algumas engrenagens que dão sustentação a essa concomitância de práticas a princípio vistas como díspares, mas que em seu funcionamento se apresentam perversamente complementares. Como metodologia foram introduzidos pequenos fragmentos de narrativas como disparadores e, a partir disso, utilizamos como referencial teórico os estudos de Achille Mbembe, Sayak Valencia Triana, Michel Foucault e Peter Pál Pelbart. Concluímos que, apesar de a miséria ter se tornado um empreendimento lucrativo para algumas organizações sociais, é necessário buscar dar visibilidade às resistências que acontecem no cotidiano das práticas dos psicólogos que atuam em instituições como presísios e ONGs.(AU)

The theme of this article orbit the issue of confronting the illicit drug trade in Brazil and the criminalization of poverty. We intend to point to the concomitance of two practices directed at those considered potentially dangerous (black and poor). These practices would be the explicit use of violence and extermination, in the management of the right to life and death (Necropolitics and Capitalism Gore), as well as the management of crime that is grounded on rescue and prevention discourses (entrepreneurship and commodification of the figure of the "drug dealer"). In this way, our central objective will be to approach some gears that fundament this concomitance of practices at first seen as disparate, but which are, in their operation, perversely complementary. As a methodology we will use small fragments of narratives as triggers and, from this, we will make a brief bibliographical search using authors like Mbembe, Triana, Foucault and Pelbart. We conclude that despite poverty having become a profitable venture for some social organizations, it is necessary to seek to give visibility to the resistance that occurs in the daily practices of psychologists who work in institutions such as prisons and NGOs.(AU)

Este artículo aborda el tema del enfrentamiento del tráfico ilícito de drogas en Brasil y la criminalización de la pobreza. El objetivo es señalar la concomitancia de dos prácticas dirigidas a aquellos considerados potencialmente peligrosos (negros y pobres). Estas prácticas serían el uso explícito de la violencia y el exterminio en la gestión del derecho a la vida y la muerte (Necropolítica y Capitalismo Gore), así como la gestión del delito a partir de discursos de rescate y prevención (emprendimiento y comercialización de la figura de " Narcotraficante"). De esta forma, realizamos el análisis de algunos engranajes que sustentan esta concomitancia de prácticas vistas en principio como dispares, pero que en su funcionamiento son perversamente complementarias. Como metodología, se introdujeron pequeños fragmentos de narrativas como disparadores y, a partir de ello, utilizamos los estudios de Achille Mbembe, Sayak Valencia Triana, Michel Foucault y Peter Pál Pelbart como marco teórico. Concluimos que a pesar de que la pobreza se ha convertido en un emprendimiento rentable para algunas organizaciones sociales, es necesario buscar dar visibilidad a las resistencias que se dan en las prácticas cotidianas de los psicólogos que laboran en instituciones como cárceles y ONGs.(AU)

Commodification of biomaterials and data when funding is contingent to transfer in biobank research.

It is common practice for biobanks and biobank researchers to seek funding from agencies that are independent of the biobank that often stipulate conditions requiring researchers to grant access and share biomaterials and data as part of the agreement, in particular, in international collaborative health research. As yet, to the author's knowledge, there has been no study conducted to examine whether these conditions could result in the commercialization of biomaterials and data and whether such practice is considered ethical. This paper therefore seeks to answer the question of whether such sharing of biomaterials and data for biobank research in exchange for funding from sponsors and funders in collaborative health research is ethically justified. The central idea of this paper is based on an argument against commodification of the body and its parts, which includes biomaterials and data and holds that it is ethically wrong to commodify humans and their body parts. The arguments against commodification of biomaterials and data explored are the Kantian approach argument as it relates to interference of commodification with human dignity which is linked to a diminished sense of personhood, an argument against commodification that is based on a dilution of altruism and lastly the communitarian approach anti-commodification argument which emphasizes a social responsibility to the common good. Arguments in support of commodification based on liberal individualism and consequentialism are also discussed.

Offering more without offering compensation: non-compensating benefits for living kidney donors.

While different positions on the permissibility of organ markets enjoy support, there is widespread agreement that some benefits to living organ donors are acceptable and do not raise the same moral concerns associated with organ markets, such as exploitation and commodification. We argue on the basis of two distinctions that some benefit packages offered to donors can defensibly surpass conventional reimbursement while stopping short of controversial cash payouts. The first distinction is between benefits that defray the costs of donating an organ and benefits that incentivize donation by offering something in excess of defraying. The second distinction is between benefits that compensate donors and benefits that are non-compensating. We argue that non-compensating benefits are innocent of moral concerns typically associated with controversial cash payouts, and thus may be a morally promising avenue for increasing rates of kidney donation to address the tragic results of undersupply.

The political economy of academic publishing: On the commodification of a public good.

This paper provides an institutional and empirical analysis of the highly concentrated market of academic publishing, characterized by over proportionally high profit margins for publishing companies. The availability of latest research findings is an important issue for researchers, universities and politicians alike. Open access (OA) publication provides a promising but also costly solution to overcome this problem. However, in this paper we argue that OA publication costs are an important, but by far not the only way for academic publishers to gain access to public funding. In contrast, our study provides a comprehensive overview of the channels through which public expenditure benefits big academic publishing companies. Furthermore, we offer the results of an explorative case study, where we estimate the annual financial flows of public expenditures in Austria for the field of social sciences. In all, these expenditures add up to about 66.55 to 103.2 million € a year, which amounts to a fourth of total public funding for this field. Against this background, we contribute to the debate whether and to what extent public subsidies are justified for economically successful companies.